The Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) is a robotic space probe mission to Mars launched by NASA on November 26, 2011, from Cape Canaveral, Florida. The mission successfully landed the Curiosity rover in Gale Crater on August 6, 2012, marking one of the most precise landings in Mars exploration history. The overall objectives of the Mars Science Laboratory include investigating Mars's habitability, both past and present, studying its climate and geology, and collecting data to support future human missions to the planet. As part of NASA's broader Mars Exploration Program, the mission aims to determine if Mars ever supported microbial life and to understand the environmental history of the landing site.
The Mars Science Laboratory project was announced by NASA in 2004 as a follow-up to earlier rover missions like Spirit and Opportunity. Development began in earnest after the 2006 selection of the mission design, with the rover's assembly occurring at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, California. The mission faced delays due to technical challenges and budget constraints, pushing the launch from an initial 2009 target to 2011. The spacecraft included a cruise stage for the journey to Mars, an aeroshell for atmospheric entry, descent, and landing (EDL), and the Curiosity rover itself. The total mission cost was approximately $2.5 billion, funded primarily by NASA.
Launch occurred aboard an Atlas V rocket, and the spacecraft traveled 560 million kilometers (350 million miles) over 254 days to reach Mars. The entry, descent, and landing phase, famously called "seven minutes of terror," utilized a sky crane system to lower the rover gently to the surface, achieving a landing accuracy within a 7 by 20 kilometer (4.3 by 12.4 mile) ellipse—far more precise than previous missions. The landing site in Gale Crater, near the base of Mount Sharp (also known as Aeolis Mons), was selected for its layered rock formations that preserve a record of Mars's geological and climatic history spanning billions of years.
The primary science goals of the Mars Science Laboratory are to assess the habitability of Mars by searching for evidence of water, organic compounds, and environmental conditions suitable for life. Secondary objectives include characterizing the planet's radiation environment and demonstrating technologies for future missions. The Curiosity rover, weighing 899 kilograms (1,982 pounds), is powered by a Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (MMRTG) using plutonium dioxide, allowing for a minimum mission duration of one Mars year (about 687 Earth days), though it was extended indefinitely in December 2012.
Curiosity is equipped with a suite of ten scientific instruments developed by an international team from the United States, Canada, France, Russia, Spain, and the United Kingdom. Key instruments include:
The rover's mobility system features a six-wheeled rocker-bogie design, enabling it to travel up to 200 meters per day across Mars's terrain, with a top speed of 0.14 kilometers per hour (0.09 miles per hour).
Since landing, the Mars Science Laboratory has revolutionized our understanding of Mars. Curiosity has traveled over 29 kilometers (18 miles) and analyzed more than 42 rock samples by October 2025, confirming that ancient Gale Crater was once a lake-fed habitable environment with flowing rivers and lakes for millions of years. Major findings include the detection of organic molecules in 2018, evidence of seasonal methane fluctuations, and the presence of boron in 2017, an element essential for life on Earth.
In 2013, the mission identified clay minerals and sulfates indicative of past water activity. By 2022, detailed overviews highlighted ten years of accomplishments, including mapping stratigraphic records and studying iron-oxide ridges like Vera Rubin Ridge. As of October 20, 2025, Curiosity has operated for 4,695 sols (Martian days), equivalent to 4,823 Earth days or over 13 years. The NASA/JPL team received the 2012 Robert J. Collier Trophy for their innovative landing technology. The mission continues to provide data on Mars's geology, climate, and potential for life, with ongoing ascents up Mount Sharp to explore older rock layers.
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